Tamarind

Tamarindus indica

Scientific Classification

Kingdom:	Plantae
Division:	Magnoliophyta
Class:	Magnoliopsida
Order:	Fabales
Family:	Fabaceae
Subfamily:	Caesalpinioideae
Tribe:	Detarieae
Genus:	Tamarindus
Species:	T. indica

VERNACULAR NAME

The Tamarind is a member of Family Fabaceae and the genus Tamarindus is monotypic. Tamarind also known as Indian date, translation of Arabic ‘tamr hindi’. The following are the common names for Tamarind in various languages:

Malayan: asam Jawa

Philippines (Tagalog): Sampalok

Hindi,Gujarat : Imli, Amli

Vietnamese: me

Thailand: ma-kharm

Taiwan: loan-tz

Spanish and Portuguese: tamarindo

French: tamarin, tamarinier or tamarindier

Dutch and German: tamarinde

Italian: tamarandizio

US Virgin Islands: taman

HISTORY & ORIGIN

Tamarind is native to tropical Africa, including Sudan and parts of the Madagascar dry deciduous forest. It was introduced into India so long ago that it has often been reported as indigenous there, and it was apparently from India that it reached the Persians and the Arabs who called it "tamar hindi". However, the specific name, "indica", indicates Indian origin. The fruit was well known to the ancient Egyptians and to the Greeks in the 4th Century B.C. It is extensively cultivated in tropical areas of the world. It is unknown when tamarind was first introduced from Africa to Asia. A number of important crop plants, such as sorghum and finger millet, reached South Asia from Africa by 2000 BC. Tamarind might have arrived then, or might be a transfer by later traders. Sometime during the sixteenth century, it was introduced into America and today is widely grown in Mexico. The tree has long been naturalized in the East Indies and the islands of the Pacific. One of the first tamarind trees in Hawaii was planted in 1797. The tamarind was certainly introduced into tropical America, Bermuda, the Bahamas, and the West Indies much earlier. In all tropical and near-tropical areas, including South Florida, it is grown as a shade and fruit tree, along roadsides and parks.

DESCRIPTION

Morphology

The tamarind tree is slow-growing, long-lived tree that can grow up to 80 feet high with a spread of 20 to 35 feet under optimum conditions. It stays evergreen in regions without dry season and it is frost sensitive. Tamarind timber consists of hard, dark red heartwood and softer, yellowish sapwood. Its grey bark clad trunk can grow up to 2 m in diameter. It is highly wind-resistant, with strong, supple branches, gracefully drooping at the ends.

The leaves are bright-green, fine and feathery which composed of pinnate leaves. They are approximately 3 to 6 inches in length and each having 10 to 20 pairs of oblong leaflets. The leaflets are close up at night. The leaves are normally evergreen but may be shed in very dry areas during the hot season. The bright-green, pinnate foliage is dense and feathery in appearance makes it an attractive shade tree with an open branch structure.

The inconspicuous, inch-wide, five-petalled flowers are borne in small racemes. They are yellow with orange or red streaks. They are shaped like small sweet peas and have sweet scent. The flower buds are pink due to the outer colour of the 4 sepals which are shed when the flower opens.

The fruits of tamarind are irregularly curved and bulged pods that are borne in great abundance along the branches. They are usually 3-8 inches long and 2-3 cm in diameter. The pods may be cinnamon-brown or grayish brown in colour. Inside, they contain a sharp-taste pulp and several flat shiny brown seeds. At first, the pulps are green and have very high acid content, while the immature seeds are soft and whitish. As they mature, the pods fill out and the juicy and acidic pulp turns brown or reddish-brown. When fully ripe, the shells are brittle and easily broken. The pulp dehydrates to a sticky paste that enclosed by a few coarse stands of fiber. The pods may contain 1 to 12 hard, flat, glossy-brown seeds that are embedded in the edible pulp. The seeds can be scarified to enhance germination. The pulp has a pleasing sweet and sour taste and is high in both sugar and acid. There are differences in fruit size and flavor in seedling trees. Indian types have longer pods with 6-12 seeds while the West Indian types are shorter with 3-6 seeds. Most tamarinds in the Americas are the shorter type.

Anatomy

Tamarind is a dicotyledonous plant. Generally, dicotyledon plants have seed whose typically has two embryonic leaves or cotyledons. The flower parts in 4’s or 5’s and contains the most species of flowering herbs, shrubs and trees. In dicot roots, the xylem tissue appears like a 3-pronged or 4-pronged star. The tissue between the prongs of the star is phloem. The central xylem and phloem is surrounded by an endodermis, and the entire central structure is called a stele. In dicot stems, the xylem tissue is produced on the inside of the cambium layer. Phloem tissue is produced on the outside of the cambium. The phloem of some stems also contains thick-walled, elongate fiber cells which are called bast fibers. Tamarind is included in Order Fabales, Family Fabaceae and subfamily Caesalpinioideae. The glandular and non glandular hairs are various kinds, but the uniseriate type with short basal cells and an elongated distal cell is rare. The epidermis is often papillose and sometimes mucilaginous. The arrangement of the subsidiary cells around the stomata is variable, even within a single species. Secretory cells with varied contents are common in the mesophyll. Tanniniferous cells were found to be common in the cortex, phloem and pith of young stems. Secretor canals, which cannot easily be distinguished in transverse sections from elongated cavities, sometimes occur in the axis. The vascular bundles of the leaf veins are usually accompanied by sclerenchyma, and they are embedded in the mesophyll. In petioles which are circular or oval in transverse section the vascular system exhibits a considerable diversity of structure. A sclerenchymatous ring usually surrounds the main petiolar vascular strand and is bounded externally by a sheath of cells containing solitary crystals. Both solitary and clustered crystals are present in all parts of the plants. The pericycle of the young stem nearly always contains a composite and continuous ring of sclerenchyma, or a continuous ring of fibres. The pericyclic sclerenchyma is frequently accompanied on the outside by a sheath of cells containing solitary crystals. Vessels typically mostly solitary, with a few small multiples and irregular clusters. Parenchyma usually abundant, typically paratracheal, in round or diamond-shaped sheaths, but in irregular confluent bands or more regular continuous bands.

CULTIVATION

For the cultivation of tamarind, the first thing to be keep in mind is that tamarind tree ultimately becomes a fairly large tree. It should be planted in full sun and in a wide area so that the tree wouldn’t have problems to expand. Tamarinds tolerate a great diversity of soil types, from deep alluvial soil to rocky land and porous, oolitic limestone. However, the trees are not tolerance towards cold, wet soils but are tolerant of salt spray and can be planted near the seashores.

Very young trees should be protected from cold but older trees are surprisingly tough. Tamarind seeds remain viable for months. They will germinate in a week after planting. In the past, propagation has been customarily by seed sown in position, with thorny branches protecting the young seedlings. However, today, young seeds are usually grown in nurseries. And there is intensified interest in vegetative propagation of selected varieties because of the commercial potential of tamarind products. The tree can be grown easily from cuttings, or by shield-budding, side-veneer grafting or air-layering. Young trees should be planted in holes larger than necessary to accommodate the root system. They should be planted slightly higher than existing ground level to allow for subsequent settling of the soil and a water basin should be built around each tree to assure adequate moisture for young trees. Spacing between trees is normally 20 to 25 feet in diameter.

The tamarind is not very demanding in its nutritional requirements. Young trees can be fertilized every 2-3 months with a 6-6-3 NPK or similar analysis fertilizer. Tamarinds may be left on the tree for as long as 6 months after maturity so that the moisture content will be reduced to 20% or lower. Fruits for immediate processing are often harvested by pulling the pod away from the stalk. Pickers are not allowed to knock the fruits off with poles as this will damages the developing flowers and leaves. A mature tree may annually produce 330 to 500 lb (150-225 kg) of fruits, of which the pulp may constitute 30-35%, the shells and fiber, 11-30% and the seeds, 33-40%.

ETHNOBOTANY ASPECT

Mythology

Tamarind tree plays an important role in human culture especially Indian culture. Tamarind tree is quite popular in Hindu mythology. According to Sanskrit text, tamarind is referred to as the tintrini tree. There is a legend that connects it to Usha, the daughter of the goddess Parvati. In honour of Usha, tamarind is used instead of salt in the month of Chet. In another myth, tamarind is commonly known in north India as imli, and it is sacred to Krishna. The popular deity is an incarnation of the god Vishnu, and personifies idealized love together with Radha. It is said that Krishna sat under a tamarind tree when separated from Radha and experienced an intense epiphany with her spirit permeating him. The 15^th century saint and reformer Chaitanya also meditated upon Krishna seated under a tamarind tree.

Night Spirits

Tamarind tree is an evergreen tree with massive feathery foliage that has strong and supple branches. Its leaflets fold at night and it is believed to be haunting during this time. Sleeping underneath a tamarind tree is considered to be silly. This belief has possibly gained currency because of the acidic nature of the tree makes the soil around it infertile to other plants. In south India, the tree is grown in the precincts of temples to the Mother Goddess who battles evil spirit at night. People are being forbidden to walk near tamarind trees in the dark. There are various popular stories which explain why the leaves are composed of many leaflets. One of the tales tells that the leaves were split by arrows shot by Lakshmana, a hero from the Hindu epic Ramayana which dates from about the 4^th century BC.

Superstitions

There are a number of superstitions beliefs about tamarind tree all over the world. In Africa, some African tribes worship the tamarind tree as sacred. To certain Burmese, the tree represents the dwelling place of the rain god and there is some belief that tree raises the temperature in its immediate vicinity. Hindus may marry a tamarind tree to a mango tree before eating the fruits. In Nyasaland, tamarind bark soaked with corn and is given to domestic fowl, in the belief that if they stray or stolen, they can find their way home. In Malaya region, a little tamarind and coconut milk is placed in the mouth of an infant at birth, and the bark and fruits are given to elephants to make them wise.

USAGE

This plant is a multi-purpose plant. Usually, the fruits and seeds are used for culinary and medicine purposes. However, leaves, flowers, wood and bark are also used for various purposes.

1. Food and Culinary Uses

Tamarind has lots of food uses. Commonly, the fruit pods and seeds are used in South Asia to add a sour taste to dishes such as sauces, curries, rice and to drinks and also deserts. They are available in its whole form, fresh or dried or as a paste or concentrate or compressed into a syrup block. Immature fruits are tender and very sour. Commonly, they are cooked as seasoning with rice, fish and meats. Ripe fruits of sweet varieties are usually eaten fresh as a snack and the ripe fruits of sour types are used for juices, syrups and sweets.

The fruit pulp is very popular in Asian and Latin American cuisine. The pulp is usually sold dry and needs to be soaked before use. It is added to sauces and used to marinade meat before frying. In South Asia, the juice is used to pickle fish and vegetables. In Indian cookery, tamarind is a very important ingredient in curries and chutneys and makes delicious sauces. In Western India, it is used for pickling fish, also known as ‘Tamarind fish’ which is considered as a special delicacy. Tamarind pulp also can be made into a tart jelly and tamarind jam is canned commercially in Costa Rica.

Syrupy tamarind pulp is used to make sweets and drinks. The ripened pulp is less sour, thus when sweetened, it can be used in a very popular sweet drinks among the Egyptians from a long time ago. These sweet drinks are often flavoured with other spices such as ginger, pepper and lime and are sold carbonated in cans.

Tamarind seeds have been used as emergency food. They are roasted, soaked to remove the seed coat, then boiled or fried or ground to a flour or starch. Flour made from the seeds can be used to bake cakes and breads. Roasted seeds are ground and used as a substitute for coffee in Thailand. In 1942, two Indian scientists, T. P. Ghose and S. Krishna had announced that the seed kernel contained 46-48% of a gel-forming substance. This purified product called ‘Jellose’. ‘polyose’ or ‘pectin’, has been found to be superior to fruit pectin in the manufacture of jellies, jams and marmalades. It also used in fruit preserving with or without acids and gelatinizes with sugar concentrates even in cold water or milk. It is recommended as a stabilizer in ice cream, mayonnaise and cheese and as an ingredient or agent in a number of pharmaceutical products.

There is no doubt that tamarind has a wide range of food uses all over the world. In the state of Andhra Pradesh in India, a tangy pickle is made from Tamarind flowers. Tamarind is a staple in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu diet, where it is used to prepare Rasam, Sambhar, Puliyogare and various types of chutneys. In Mexico, tamarind is sold in various snack forms, where it is dried and salted or candied. Mexicans commonly drink it as a cold agua fresco beverage or have it in iced fruit bars and raspados. Pad Thai is a Thai dish popular with Europeans and Americans. It often includes tamarind for its sweet and sour taste. A tamarind-based sweet and sour sauce served over deep fried fish is also a common dish in Central Thailand. In Malaysia, tamarind is used to add a sweet-sour taste to gravy for fish in a dish called asam fish. In the Phillipines, tamarind is used in foods like Sinigang soup and it also made into candies. Tamarind tree is not only has food uses to human, but to animals as well. In Madagascar, the tree is known as the ‘kily tree’. Its fruits and leaves are well-known favourite of lemurs, providing 50% of their food resources.

The tender leaves, flowers and young seedlings are also eaten as vegetables. Leaves are fed to livestock as fodder and the flowers are considered to be a good source of honey. There are lots of analyses regarding the food value of tamarind. Roughly, they show the pulp to be rich in calcium, phosphorus, iron, thiamine and riboflavin and a good source of niacin. Ascorbic acid content is low except in the peel of young green fruits.

2. Medicinal Uses

Tamarind fruits and leaves are widely used in traditional medicine practice. Taken internally or applied externally, a range of conditions are treated including sore throats, sunstroke and stomach problems. Some of these uses are imitated by Western medicine.

Tamarind is popular as a laxative. The pulp is a gentle laxative that improves general sluggishness of the bowels. They are refrigerant from the acids they contain, thus the infusion of tamarind pulp makes a useful drink in febrile conditions and the pulp is a good diet in the process of recovery in maintaining the laxative action of the bowels. In India, tamarind pulp is used as an astringent in bowl complaints. The pulp also used to aid the restoration of sensation in cases of paralysis. In Colombia, an ointment made of tamarind pulp, butter and other ingredients is used to rid vermin.

The fruits are used to flavour drinks given to patients with fever. When prescribed in this way, the tamarind is mixed with lime, honey, milk and spices. Moreover, tamarind is useful in correcting bilious disorders due to the acidic content in tamarind. The acidity will excite the bile and other juices in the body. Tamarind is also a blood purifier.

Tamarind leaves and flowers that are dried or boiled used as relieving swollen joints and sprains. Lotions and extracts made from the leaves and flowers are used in treating conjunctivitis, as antiseptics and treatments for dysentery, jaundice, erysipelas and hemorrhoids and other ailments. In the Philippines, the leaves have been traditionally used in herbal tea for reducing malaria fever. The bark of the tree is regarded as an effective astringent, tonic and febrifuge. It also can be fried with salt and pulverized to ash and used as remedy for indigestion and colic.

The infusion of the roots is believed can cure chest complaints and become one of the ingredients in prescriptions for leprosy. The leaves and roots contain several types of glycosides which are vitexin, isovitexin, orientin and isoorientin. Meanwhile, the bark yields a type of alkaloid called hordenine.

3. Carpentry Uses

The sapwood of the tamarind tree is pale-yellow. The heartwood is rather small, dark purplish-brown. The structure of the wood is very hard, heavy and strong. Due to its durability and insect-resistant, it is highly prized for furniture, paneling, wheels, axles, gears for mills, ploughs, planking for sides of boats, wells, mallets, knife and tool handles, rice pounders, mortars and pestles.

In temples, especially in Asian countries, the pulp is used to clean brass shrine furniture, removing dulling and the greenish patina that forms.

4. Horticultural Uses

In South India, tamarind trees are very common used as ornamental trees and to provide shade on the country roads and highways. The tamarind also recently becomes popular in bonsai culture in Asian countries like Indonesia, Taiwan and the Philippines. The tamarind tree is the official plant of Santa Clara, Cuba.

5. Other Uses

Tamarind still has lots of uses. In West Africa, an infusion of the whole pods is added to the dye when colouring goat hides. Tamarind leaves and flowers are useful as mordant in dyeing. A yellow dye derived from the leaves colour, wool red and turns indigo-dyed silk to green. Furthermore, the leaves in boiling water are employed to bleach the leaves of the buri palm (Corypha elata Roxb.) in order to prepare them for hat-making.

The powder made from tamarind kernels has been adopted by Indian textile industry as 300% more efficient and more economical than cornstarch for sizing and finishing cotton, jute and spun viscose. Other industrial uses include colour printing of textiles, paper sizing, leather treating, manufacture of a structural plastic, glue for wood, a stabilizer in bricks, a binder in sawdust briquettes and thickener in some explosives. Tamarind seeds yield amber oil that is very useful as an illuminant and as varnish especially for painting dolls. Tamarind seed oil also used in a similar way to linseed oil that is suitable for making paints.

Tamarind twigs are sometimes used as “chewsticks” and the bark of the tree is used as masticators, alone or in place of lime with betel nut. The bark contains 7% tannin and often used in tanning hides and in dyeing, and when burned, it is used to make ink.

Moreover, tamarind leaves and fruits that have been extracted traditionally can be added to body lotions. They also can be added to deepen the colour of turmeric or henna-based red hair dyes. Besides that, tamarind extracts also added to face masks, lip balms, body butters and soaps.

The wood of tamarind has valued for fuel, especially for brick kilns that give off an intense heat and it also yields charcoal for the manufacture of gun-powder. In Malaysia, even though the trees are seldom cut down, they are frequently topped to obtain firewood.

References:

Metcalfe, C.K & Chalk, L.1961. Anatomy of the dicotyledons. London. Oxford University Press.

Wikipedia.2009. Tamarind. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/tamarind.[14 JANUARY 2009]

Califotnia Rare Fruit Growers (CRFG). 1996. Tamarind Fruit Facts. www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/tamarind.[14 JANUARY 2009]

Plantcultures.Tamarind.www.plantcultures.org/plants/tamarind.[1 FEBRUARY 2009]

Indianetzone. Tamarind. www.indianetzone.com/tamarind.[3 FEBRUARY 2009].