Coconut

Cocos nucifera

Scientific Classification

Kingdom:	plantae
(Unranked):	Angiosperms
(Unranked):	Monocots
(Unranked):	Commelinids
Order:	Arecales
Family:	Arecaceae
Subfamily:	Arecoideae
Tribe:	Cocoeae
Genus:	Cocos
Species:	C. nucifera

VERNACULAR NAME

Coconut belongs to Family Arecaceae and it is the only species in genus Cocos. In English, it is called ‘coconut’. The name Cocos is supposed to have been derived from the Portuguese word ‘Macaco’ for monkey because of the resemblance of the nut with the head of the monkey, two of the germinating holes representing the eyes and the third one representing the nose and was given the name ‘nut of India’ in 1500. The specific name nucifera is Latin for nut-bearing. The name was latinized to Cocos nucifera in 1735. The following are the common names of coconut in different languages:

Dutch: Kokos, Kokosnoot

Farsi: Nargil

French: Coco, Noix de coco

German: Kokos, Kokosnuβ

Hindi: Gari, Nariyal, Narial

Indonesia: Kelapa

Italian: Cocco

Japanese: Kokoyashi

Korean: Kokoyaja

Malay: Kelapa, Nyiur

Portuguese: Coqueiro

Sanskrit: Narikela

Spanish: Coco fruto

HISTORY& ORIGIN

The coconut palm has been known to exist in most regions of the tropics from pre-historic times. Besides having a far wider spread in the humid tropical lowlands than many other useful crops, the coconut palm has a hoary antiquity in some of the countries. The origin of this plant is still a subject of controversy. Some authorities claim that coconut is native to South Asia while others claim its origin is in northwestern South America. It is now thought to come from western Pacific and spread via human activity and ocean currents to most tropics regions. Fossil records from New Zealand indicate that small, coconut-like plants grew there as long as 15 million years ago. Even older fossils have been found in Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, (India) and the oldest known so far in Khulna, Bangladesh. Although the original home of the coconut is not clearly known, it has been possible to trace history of coconut culture in most of the countries. The coconut is featured in early Sanskrit writings during the 4th century BC. The palms are also frequently mentioned in early Tamil literature during the 1st century AD to the 4th century AD.

DESCRIPTION OF COCONUTS

1. MORPHOLOGY

The coconut palms are monocotyledonous, with no tap root, and have a swollen base. They have a thick growth of string-like root system emanating from the blunt bottom of the stem. Since the tree has a strong root system which anchors it solidly into the soil, it is usually not uprooted even by strong windstorms. The palm does not have root hairs. However, its main roots under certain conditions give rise to several lateral branches which then branch and rebranch. These rootlets are also known as feeding roots. At the tip of each root, there is a root cap which protects the tender growth point and enables it to push its way through the soil. From the surface of the main roots as well as rootlets, small whitish pointed out growth s develop which function as the respiratory roots or pneumatophores. These roots act as organs for the exchange of gases. The normal length of the roots of a mature tree is about 5 m in firm soil and 7 m in sand.

In a growing seedling, the trunk begins to form after the emergence of 12 to 18 leaves. In the first few years, it rapidly increases in thickness. The uniformity in the thickness of the trunk is often influenced by the environmental factors, especially the availability of nutrients and moisture. Sudden changes in the soil moisture content lead to the development of cracks on the trunk. Pathogen makes entry into the tree through these cracks. Under normal conditions, the diameter of the stem is about 30 to 40 cm, sometimes reaching 1 m at the base. On an average, the palm produces about 12 leaves annually and based on this, the age of a palm could be computed by counting the numbers of leaf scars on the trunk.

Coconuts can grow to between 15 and 30 m tall. Their trunks are ringed with scars where old leaves have fallen. The top of the trunk is crowned with a rosette of leaves. An adult palm usually carries 30 to 40 paripinnate leaves in its crown. The leaf consists of central stalk, up to 6 m long, with a row of over 200 leaflets of 1 to 1.5 m in length. The leaf originates from the bud, where it is folded up in many plies, firmly pressed together. A new leaf first appears as a solid, compact, spear-like structure which slowly unfolds and opens up by the action of a special swelling tissue. The life span of a leaf, from its emergence to shedding, is about 2.5 to 3 years and a new leaf appears in the crown every 3 or 4 weeks in a healthy palm.

The coconut palm is monoecious, producing both male and female flowers on the same inflorescence. The male flower is yellowish in colour and the female is greenish-yellow. Several hundred male flowers are produced by an inflorescence with only a few female flowers. The inflorescence bears 30 to 35 spikelets, densely set with male flowers. The male flowers may number about 250-300 per spikelet so that there are about 8 000 to 10 000 male flowers per inflorescence. The female flowers are found at the base of the spikelets and each spikelet may carry one or a few female flowers, having already attained the shape of small coconuts.

After fertilization, it takes about 11 to 12 months for the flower to develop to maturity as large ovoid fruit which is known as ‘nut’. The husk or mesocarp is composed of fibres called coir. When the nut is about 160 days old, it attains full size and the meat begins to form as a thin layer of jelly around the inside of the endocarp or shell. The endocarp is the hardest part. This hard endocarp, the outside of the coconut has three germination pores that are clearly visible on the outside surface once the husk is removed. Through one of these that the radical emerges when the embryo germinates. Adhering to the inside wall of the endocarp is the testa, with a thick albuminous endosperm (the coconut “meat”), the white and fleshy edible part of the seed. The endosperm surrounds a hollow interior space, filled with air and often a liquid, known as coconut water, not to be confused with coconut milk. Coconut water from unripe coconut can be drinking fresh. The young coconuts used for coconut water are called tender coconuts. The water of a tender coconut is liquid endosperm. It is mildly sweet with aerated feel when cut fresh. Depend on the size; a tender coconut could attain the liquid in the range of 300 to 1 000 ml. In the process of ripening, the coconut water is partially replaced by the meat. The endocarp or shell begins to harden when the coconut is about 220 days old. The shell becomes fully hardened and the meat fully formed with a brown outer testa adhering inside the endocarp when the fruit is 11 to 12 months old.

Coconut meat has high amount of saturated fat. However, it contains less fat than other dry nuts such as almonds. Approximately 90% of the fat found in coconut meat is saturated. Coconut meat also contains less sugar and more protein than bananas, apples and oranges. It is also relatively high in minerals such as iron, phosphorus and zinc. The meat in a young coconut is softer and more like gelatin than a mature coconut, that it is sometimes known as coconut jelly.

The ripe fruit is ovoid, three angled, and 15 to 30 cm long and contains a single seed or embryo. It has smooth outside skin or exocarp. In general, a fully matured fruit will have a composition by weight of about 35% husk, 12% shell, 28% meat and about 25% water.

2. ANATOMY

The palm family (Arecaceae) is one of the economically important monocot families. Generally, members of this group have one cotyledon or embryonic leaf in their seeds. The monocots are a distinctive group. One of the most noticeable traits is that a monocot’s flower is trimerous, with the flower parts in threes or in multiples of three. This means, a monocotyledon’s flower typically has three, six or nine petals. The monocots also have leaves with parallel veins.

The coconut palm has large, pinnate leaves with opposite leaflets, each reduplicate and with a prominent adaxial midrib. The epidermis is wholly cutinized, the outer wall is thickened and the walls are not sinuous. The adaxial epidermis is uniform, cell-shape and usually more or less rectangular or cubical. The stomata are restricted to abaxial intercostals regions, not in distinct files but with 1-3 series in each intercostals band. The chlorenchyma is with a well-developed 3-layered adaxial palisade, but abaxial mesophyll cells also somewhat anticlinally extended and slightly papillose above stomata. The veins are mostly in abaxial mesophyll with the largest attached to each hypodermis either by a narrow unlignified fibrous buttress, or separated from abaxial hypodermis.

The stem is solitary, tall, often leaning, ringed by leaf scars and the internodes are rather short. The central vascular bundles each with a well-developed fibrous phloem sheath; xylem sheathed by parenchyma and usually with 2 wide metaxylem vessels. The ground parenchyma cells are not secondarily expanded, including frequent scattered fibrous strands. The roots surface layers are often eroded, fibrous exodermis are well developed. Meanwhile, the outer cortical cells are narrow. The stegmata are abundant in stem and lea, mostly in discontinuous files. In lamina, stegmata are infrequent adjacent to adaxial fibres but common adjacent to transverse commissures.

ETHNOBOTANY ASPECTS

Coconuts are extensively used in Hindu religious rituals. Coconuts are usually offered to gods, and a coconut is smashed on the ground or on some object as part of an initiation of building projects, facility or ships. The coconuts are named sriphala or fruit of the gods and they symbolize complete usefulness, selfless service, prosperity and generosity. The palms are believed to be the embodiment of the ancient Indian concept of kalpavriksha, or the tree which grants all wishes. The Indonesian tale of Hainuwele tells a story of the introduction of coconuts to Seram. In Vietnam, the southern province of Ben Tre is referred to as the “land of coconuts”.

Mythology and religious

In Indian mythology, the coconut tree was created by the powerful sage, Vishwamitra to prop up King Trishanku who was attempting to gain entry to heaven as a mortal but was thrown out by the gods. The dehusked coconut is always a part of temple offerings in southern India, where it is split open before the deities, recalling animal and human sacrifices of ancient Vedic-period rituals. They are offered to guests and are used when blessing a house or installing a deity, and in marriage rites. When sanctified during sacred rites, the flesh of the coconut is shared as 'prasad' or food blessed by god. The three 'eyes' of the coconut represent the three eyes of the great god Shiva. An earthen pot or pitcher, called a purnakumbha is filled with water and mango leaves and a coconut is placed on top. This purnakumbha is used in the ritual of worship and adoration of the gods, called puja. It is placed as a substitute for the deity or by the side of the deity. The purnakumbha literally means a 'full pot' in Sanskrit. It represents Mother Earth, the water the giver of life, the leaves life itself, and the coconut divine consciousness. A number of fishermen of India, irrespective of their religious affiliation and faith, offer coconuts to the rivers and seas to propitiate the god Varuna, in hopes of having a bountiful catch. In Hindu wedding ceremonies, a coconut is placed over the opening of a pot, representing a womb. Moreover, the Hindu goddess of well-being and wealth, Lakshmi, is often shown holding a coconut.

Coconuts are also used in Thaipusam, a celebration by the Hindu. The breaking of old coconuts along the road where Lord Murugan will pass is a ritual that is carried out one day before Thaipusam. Many devotees will pledge a certain number of coconuts each year and to fulfil their vow, lorry loads of old coconuts will be lined along the roads where the chariot of Lord Murugan passes. The coconut water is meant to wash clean the roads.

In Malay culture, a firstborn receives extra attention through a ceremony called “Melenggang Perut", literally means "swinging the tummy". This is done when the expectant mother is seven months pregnant. It is supposed to be an occasion to engage the services of a traditional midwife or bidan. Nowadays, melenggang perut is more of a tradition especially for urban mothers who have the services nurses trained in midwifery and gynaecologists. Ideally, parents of the expecting couple meet together to select a day for melenggang perut or also called "kirim perut". There are few items need to be prepared for the ritual, includes: seven pieces of cloths of different colours, a coconut, a live chicken, 3 strands of cords, an egg, tepung tawar, beras kunyit, and a small mirror. The bidan has spread and piled the seven pieces of cloths on the floor. The expecting mother lies on the cloths to let the bidan massage her bulging belly with coconut oil. After that, the bidan takes a cleaned coconut and rolls it gently on her belly and towards her toes seven times.

Then the expecting mother kicks the coconut towards the wall to guess the gender of the baby. It is believed that if the "eyes" of the coconut turn upwards when the coconut stops rolling; the expecting parent will have a baby boy and vice versa. "Melenggang perut" is defined as an act in the Malay culture to adjust the position of a baby (in the womb). However, a midwife observes that its most important function is to promote a sense of well-being about the impending delivery. The midwife also notes that new mothers feel better prepared after the ritual.

USAGE

Almost all parts of the coconut palm are useful, and the palms have a comparatively high yield, up to 75 fruits per year, therefore it has significant economic value. The name for the coconut palm in Sanskrit is kalpa vriksha, which means "the tree which provides all the necessities of life". In Malay, the coconut is known as pokok seribu guna, which means "the tree of a thousand uses". In the Philippines, the coconut is commonly given the title " Tree of Life". It is theorised that if a human is stranded on a desert island populated by palm trees, you could survive purely on the tree and coconut alone, as the coconut provides all of the required natural properties for survival.

1. FOOD USES

Coconuts have wide food uses, especially culinary. Culinary uses of the coconuts include various parts of the fruits. The white, fleshy part of the seed (the coconut meat) is edible and can be eaten fresh or dried in cooking.

Coconut milk

Coconut milk is a sweet, milky white cooking base derived from the meat of a mature coconut. It is made by processing grated coconut with hot water or milk, which extracts the oil and aromatic compounds. The colour and rich taste of the milk is due to the high oil content and sugars. In Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia, coconut milk is called santan and in the Philippines, it is called gata. Santan is the basis of Malay lemak dishes. Lemak dishes are typically not hot to taste and it is aromatically spiced and santan is added for a creamy richness. Coconut milk is also considered as an alternative to dairy product and is widely used in Southeast Asian and Indian cooking as well as in making delicious desserts.

Coconut water

Coconut water contains sugar, fibre, proteins, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals. It provides an isotonic electrolyte balance, and is highly nutritious food source. Fresh coconut water is a popular cooling drink in tropical countries and it is also used as isotonic sports beverages. The processed coconut water is usually canned or bottled. Plus, coconut water can be used to make the gelatinous dessert called ‘nata de coco’.

Sweet palm wine, Nectar drink, Palm sugar

The young flowering clusters of coconut plant produces sap. This sap is collected and fermented to produce sweet palm wine which is also known as “toddy” in India, “tuba” in the Philippines or “tuak” in some parts of Southeast Asia. The sap extracted from the flower bud of the coconut can be processed to become a type of nectar beverage known as “nira” in the East Coast of Malaysia. The fermentation process is similar as in producing the palm wine; however the process stops one level before it becomes the alcoholic drink. The non-alcoholic beverage is believed to be a good source of energy. The sap can also be boiled to produce sweet, dark syrup. Traditionally, in the Malay culture, the syrup is poured into bamboo containers and left to become hard sugar blocks. Palm sugar is widely used in making desserts, cakes, candies and in some savory dishes. In Malaysia, it is called “Malacca sugar”.

Heart-of-palm, coconut sprout, puso

Apical buds of the adult coconut plants are edible and are known as “palm cabbage” or heart-of-palm. It is considered as a rare delicacy, as the act of harvesting the bud kills the palm. Hearts of palm are eaten in salads, and it is sometimes called “millionaire’s salad”. Coconut palms yield one of the heaviest palm hearts, which can weigh in up to 12 kg. Newly germinated coconuts contain an edible fluff of marshmallow-like consistency called coconut sprout, produced as the endosperm nourishes the developing embryo. In the Philippines, rice is wrapped in coconut leaves for cooking and subsequent storage. These packets are called puso.

Coconut flour

A partially defatted edible coconut grating is an excellent product which can be use in bakery and confectionary preparations and also in nutrition feeding programmes in school. In India, the Central Food Technology Research has developed a process for the manufacture of edible flour. The wet kernel is first separated from the shell by crushing the coconut cups in a hand-operated gadget. The residual shell pieces are removed, kernel pieces washed free of dirt, passed through a pin type disintegrator and gratings sieved. The gratings are then dried in less than 30 minutes in a cross-flow drier to less than 3% moisture. The dried gratings are then subjected to hydraulic pressing for partial extraction of oil in 10 kg batches. The residual product was white and powdery with good flavour. In the Philippines, it was found that 5% coconut flour can replace proportionate amounts of wheat flour and non-fat dry milk powder without affecting baking qualities and food value.

Virgin coconut oil

Extracting virgin coconut oil is an unmechanized, labor-intensive operation where most of the work is done by hand. In wet milling, the process of grating the fresh coconut begins by holding the nut over a rotating grater. The mechanized grater, operating at very high speed, requires skill to hold the coconut in place during the grating process. The wet gratings are then put into a special dryer furnace to remove the moisture. The dryer uses cleaned coconut shells for fuel added continuously during the entire drying process. The dried gratings are then fed into a screw press to extract the oil. The machine is not motorized but is belt driven to keep the temperature low during the 45-minute process of extracting the oil. The coconut gratings are passed through the press three times to squeeze out all possible oil. The raw oil is then carefully purified by a slow process called racking, a three-step process that allows the oil to settle for 18 hours during the first step. Impurities fall to the bottom and the oil is decanted off the top. With the second settling, the oil rests for a week before it is siphoned off. The third and last decanting take three weeks. Finally the pure oil is bottled for the consumer. The end product has a definitive pleasant coconut aroma and flavour. The virgin coconut oil is not only related to weight loss but it can also increases metabolism, helps sluggish thyroids, increases energy levels, kills Candida and yeast infections, improves cholesterol levels, clears up skin infections, kills viruses and improves digestive health.

Ketupat casing

Ketupat is famous dishes among Malays especially during Muslim festive season of Hari Raya Aidilfitri and Hari Raya Aidiladha. It is very popular among Malay communities in Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, Indonesia, and Southern Thailand. Ketupat is a savoury rice cake wrapped in woven coconut leaves. Coconut leaves are weaved to make the case for ketupat and only young coconut leaves are used because the older leaves are bitter and will affect the taste of the food. Ketupat is usually eaten with rendang or served as an accompaniment to satay.

2. MEDICINAL USES

Traditional medicine

Coconut palms have been used to treat extraordinary range of health problems. The seeds, roots and flowers have been prepared into pastes, infusions and creams for Ayurvedic and other traditional South Asian medicines.

The white meat and water from the coconut are used for heart conditions, dysentery, fever, pain, digestive and bladder problems, to quench thirst and as an aphrodisiac. To treat diarrhea, meat from young fruits is mixed with other ingredients and rubbed onto the stomach. Oil is prepared from boiling coconut milk is used as antiseptic and soothing and so is smoothed onto the skin to treat burns, ringworm and itching. It has been also applied to the scalp in the belief that it might encourage hair growth and prevent grey hair.

Other parts of the palm are also used in traditional South Asian medicine. Juice tapped from flowers stalks is given to cure fever and promote urination. The fresh juice mixed and heated together with rice flour is applied to gangrenous ulcers and skin boils, while fermented juice is taken as a laxative. The roots have been used for a host of ailments, including as an infusion for sore throat gargles. Coconut palm hearts are nourishing and are regarded as good for the digestion. To regulate menstruation, a paste made from grinding the hearts with molasses is eaten every day for several successive days. The fresh juices from the hearts are used against fevers.
Coconuts also feature in traditional medicines in other parts of the world. For example, in Indo-China, the seeds are used as a treatment for skin and nasal ulcers.

Village people often drink coconut water to cure drug over dosage. They claim coconut water has chemical composition that makes it suitable as ‘drug neutralizer’. Coconut water is naturally very alkalizing to the body and is a great pH regulator. It is charged with alkalizing minerals such as Potassium, Calcium and Magnesium. When someone is very sick, the system is under stress or it is extremely acidic in body pH, water from young coconuts can play a key role in their recovery. Coconut water also contains special molecules called Cytokinins. Cytokinins are protective factors to the cells as they undergo cell mitosis (cell division).

Western medicine

The coconut oil contains fatty acid that makes it suitable to make good creams and detergents. The fatty acid in coconut oil is an antimicrobial, and it is also contains a compound called sucrose cocoate, which is moisturising. The oil is used in skin soothing treatments to ease inflammation such as eczema and psoriasis. Scalp creams and shampoos that contain coconut oil include Cocois^® and Capasal^®. Sucrose cocoate is also added to some pharmaceutical preparations because it can help the body to absorb certain drugs.

Despite of all the nutritional value contained in coconut water, it is also an antioxidant. Antioxidant is important in the maintenance of health and the prevention and treatment for cancer.

3. OTHER USES

The coconuts provide lots of uses to human, besides in food and medicinal. Various parts of coconuts can be used for human benefit.

· Coconut Husk

Coir is made from coconut’s husk fibres, which can be woven into strong twine or rope. The husk is soaked in water before the fibres are teased apart. The fibre is resistant to water and is used for cables and rigging on ships, for making mats, rugs, bags, brooms, brushes and olive oil filters in Italy and Greece. The coir itself can also be made into mulch and compressed into little briquettes for pot plants as an environmentally friendly alternative to peat. It is exported from India to UK where gardeners called it as ‘Coco Peat’. Industrially, coir may have future in car manufacture, where it can be rubberised and used to make car seats.

· Coconut Trunks

Coconut trunks are hardy and durable woods. They are often used for building small bridges, because of their straightness, strength and salt resistance. Recently, they are increasingly being used as an ecologically-sound substitute for endangered hardwoods. In Manila, They have been used to make furniture and specialized construction. Hawaiians hollowed the trunk to form drums, containers, or even small canoes. Paper pulp can also be extracted from the coconut trunk and other woody parts of the tree.

· Coconut Shells

Coconut shells can be turned into activated charcoal by first making charcoal by heating chunks of the shell at high temperatures without oxygen. The coconut charcoal is then treated with oxygen which opens up millions of tiny pores between carbon atoms. This is called activated charcoal which has unusual qualities of being able to absorb large amounts of impurities from gases and liquids. It also considered superior to those obtained from other sources mainly because of small macro pores structure which renders it more effective for the adsorption of gas or vapour and for the removal of color, oxidants, impurities and odor of compounds. It is used to make filters for gas masks. The charcoal is used for cooking fires, air filters and cigarette tips.

· Copra

Copra is the dried meat of the seed and, after further processing, can be made into coconut oil. Coconut oil has been used for centuries in hair care and skin products. The lauric acid which contained in the copra is the active ingredients that can turn the copra into a soap called sodium laurate. This is used to make liquid and bar soaps, washing powders, cosmetics, shampoos, paints and varnishes. Coconut oil is added to body lotions with sugar as an exfoliater to remove dead skin cells and to moisturize the skin. When used traditionally as a shampoo, coconut oil was boiled with lemon to remove the coconut smell and then mixed with jasmine water.

· Coconut Roots

The roots are used as a dye, a mouthwash and a medicine for dysentery. A frayed-out piece of root can also be used as a toothbrush. The roots are believed to be antiblenorrhagic, antibronchitic, febrifugal and antigingivitic.

· Coconut Leaves

Coconut leaves can be woven to create effective roofing materials, or reed mats. It can also produce good quality paper pulp, midrib brooms, hats and mats, fruit trays, waste baskets, fans, beautiful midrib decors, lamp shades, placemats, and bags. The stiff leaflet midribs can also be used to make cooking skewers and kindling arrows. Dried coconut leaves can be burned to ash, which can be harvested for lime.

Coconuts are also used to make traditional music instrument. In Malay tradition, kertok is made from a large coconut with its top sliced off and a piece of wooden bar fastened across the mouth to form a sounding board. Each part of the sounding board will produce different melodies when struck with a wooden stick bound with cloth at one end. Nowadays, modern kertok are made of wood and other materials. Colourful penants are usually attached for decoration and painted in gaily colours. It used to be played after the rice harvesting season but these days it is mostly played as a pastime game and during special occasions or State functions. During a kertok competition, each team will use its own variety of beats without other accompaniment.

Besides that, dried half coconut shells are used as the bodies of musical instruments, including the Chinese yehu and banhu, and the Vietnamese dan gao.

References:

Tomilson, P.B. 1961. Anatomy of the Monocotyledons. Volume II Palmae. Oxford University Press.

Thampan, P.K.1982. Handbook on Coconut Palm. New Delhi. Roland Press.

Woodroff, J.G. 1979. Coconuts: Production, Processing, Products. Connecticut. AVI Publishing Company.

wikipedia. 2009. Coconut.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/coconut. [15 JANUARY 2009].

Plantcultures. Coconuts.www.plantcultures.org/plants/coconut.[15 JANUARY 2009].